Equality

The following notes should help you to understand:

  1   What is Equality? Its importance as a basic political value.

  2   Demands for Equality in 19th and 20th Century Europe.

  3   Relationship between Liberty and Equality: Complimentary-Conflicting

  4   State Intervention or Discrimination to reduce inequality and the problem of freedom.

 

# 1 Introduction

Equality is an age old Ideal. Equality is not something that actually exists around us. Hence the demand for Equality is made not on a factual basis but on logical grounds. In Pre-modern era, equality was rejected on the grounds that no two individuals have the same physical and mental capabilities. However modern understanding of the concept demands equality of opportunities to be given to individuals and not equality of treatment.

Problem of equality-inequality figured since the times of Aristotle who defined it as ‘treating equals equally and unequals unequally’. It meant recognition, and continuance of existing inequalities. Thus the Masters and their slaves were unequal individuals and this was an unchangeable fact. In other words the slave was born to be a slave and master was born to rule over him.

 However with the progress of science and expansion of knowledge it is a now recognized that all individuals are equally capable. Only with the right type of environment and opportunities can an individual attain full development to be useful to the society.

Today scientific knowledge has proved that black skinned people have similar capacities as white men. It is also proven that they are not born to be slaves as was the belief earlier. It is well known today that women are equally capable of doing the same things as men and even at times better than men.

 In other words natural inequality can be altered only in a limited extent, but inequalities  

  created by society can be and should be removed through human efforts. Thus, the modern 

  idea of equality seeks reduction of socially produced inequalities. The supporters of equality demand it not on the basis of factual equality among humans but as a desired goal of society. They support such a demand by logically arguing that all men are equal in some ways.

Sometimes it is argued that equality does not have any sound basis as it goes against the natural principle of liberty. It is also criticized on the basis that it would rob the wealth of the privileged. However one should remember that freedom cannot be for only a few people. Hence liberty should be limited by equality. In simple words the enjoyment of freedom by one/few should not be at the cost of freedom of others. Equality is aimed to prevent exploitation of the powerless at the hands of those in power. Thus equality and liberty as rights have the same purpose -to ensure social benefits for all.

 Traditionally inequalities of wealth and status were taken as an unalterable fact. And justified on the basis of religion or birth e.g. slavery or caste system. Thus if one was born as a slave or poor or untouchable there was nothing one could do except suffer the entire life. However modern thinkers scientifically questioned the basis of socially created inequalities and proved that them as unreasonable and removable.

18th century French thinker J. J. Rousseau made an important distinction between natural and conventional inequality- as between natural age, skills , talents etc and wealth, prestige and power.- the former largely result of nature and chance and later a result of unequal social order or man-made.

Modern science and technology have proved helpful in reducing natural inequality e.g. hearing aids, artificial limbs, plastic surgery, etc. However the availability of such benefits is based on the social status of an individual. Hence a large number of humans are denied the benefits of modern civilisation only due to social inequalities.

 Thus we can infer from the above arguments that equality demands social change/revolution in the society. However the ideal of equality does not demand that entire national income or educational opportunities should be distributed equally among all. It rather means that all men differ in their physical and mental capacities, skills and talents and so should be given equal opportunities of to have basic needs, education, and training for development.

 But if it does not mean treating all in the same way than what does it mean? Equality means accepting discrimination on reasonable or logical basis:

1 Special provision in case of need would include e.g. progressive taxation, cheap        transport, schools; hospitals etc to be made available to those are unable to pay for it.

2 Special rewards for excellence are also recognised under principle of equality. Special talents and skills should be rewarded provided only when the basic needs of all are taken care of and such excellence is useful for the society.

However the question of discrimination to ensure equality has given rise to several debates. In the west it has been argued that favouring blacks and women in education and jobs   leads to denial of equality of opportunity for others or 'reverse discrimination'. While some see this as a necessary step to remedy injustices done to blacks and women in the past and refer to it as 'affirmative action'. In India, the policy of reservations for the backward classes has been problematic due to the difficulty in identifying the neediest sections. Nonetheless, the backward sections should be provided sufficient opportunities of education and professional development to ensure withdrawal of favoured treatment.         

     

# 2 Dimensions of Equality

 1)  Legal Equality:          

         Since ancient period idea of legal equality has not been accepted e.g. Manusmriti prescribed different kinds of punishments for the same crime to people from different   caste. Similarly Women till 1918 lacked voting rights in England.

  The first demand for equality was made in the legal sphere claiming equal legal status irrespective of differences of birth, physical and mental differences. In simple words, legal equality today means citizens are subject to the same law and receive equal protection of law. However legal equality stands violated if the cost of legal justice prevents the poor from approaching courts. Hence it should be accompanied with changes in the socio-economic structure.

   2) Political Equality:

       It signifies equality of political rights of citizens. Their right to representation in decision-making bodies based on idea of 'one man one vote'. Citizens should enjoy the right to participate in government bodies without any discrimination of birth, caste, race, colour etc.  Thus no class of people will have monopoly to rule and rulers will not enjoy special privileges. It signifies that when all individuals are given equal political rights it will ensure the common good.

The idea of political equality led to establishment of democracy in the western world. However it did not fulfil the hopes and aspirations of masses due to existing socio-economic inequalities. Therefore achievement of political equality was followed by the demand for socio-economic equality.

   3) Socio-economic Equality:

   The social and economic aspects of equality very closely relate to each other. Social and economic equality demand change in the structure of society and not just ‘absence of restraints’. It is only when the principle of equality is extended to the economic sphere that the benefits of legal-political equality will extend to the poor and the needy sections of society.

The idea of legal-political equality was put forward to benefit the middle class and replace feudalism by capitalism. And socio-economic equality was meant to support working classes and promote socialism over capitalism.

It is important to note here that socio-economic equality does not demand perfect equality in treatment of individuals in society. Instead it insists on a gradual extension of social benefits like education, jobs etc to weaker and underprivileged sections of society.

In simple words it demands the right to equal satisfaction of basic needs of all e.g. government provision of cheap transport, hospitals, pensions etc.

# 3 Liberty and Equality

The relation between equality and liberty is such that as per their contexts they may mutually opposing or adjustable.

1) Liberty and Equality as Complimentary Principles

Liberty demands ‘equal’ liberty for all. If freedom of the strong or the rich destroys freedom of the weak or poor, it leads to destruction of freedom as a universal principle. Here   the principles of liberty complement the principle of equality. It means restraints on freedom so that everyone enjoys same amount of freedom.

With the development of civilization, several new ways of exploitation also evolved. Property is one such source of exploiting others. By accumulating unlimited property one can exploit many. Hence vast inequalities of wealth and property lead to destruction of freedom. The principle of equality demands a radical change in the socio-economic structure of society so that no one is in a position to enslave others or exploit others.

 

2) Idea of Equality as Impediment to Liberty

Some thinkers have envisaged certain situations when equality obstructs liberty. French thinker Alexis de Tocqueville in his ‘Democracy in America’ observed that the democratic principle of majority opinion led to the curtailment of individual opinions and loss of freedom. Similarly Lord Acton (1834-1902), a British historian that equality had led to the increased authority of state and hence endangered individual liberty. However both the above thinkers were not against equality but only warned that demand for equality in the area of freedom of opinion should not lead result in suppression of freedom.

Isaiah Berlin argued in the 20^th century that state could only protect negative equality. Positive liberty lied in the will and capacity of the individual to put his freedom to best use. However Berlin failed to understand that socio-economic conditions determined the extent to which an individual could use his capacities and will to enjoy freedom.

F.A.Hayek argued that the inequalities of income and wealth and income are natural result of differences in skills and abilities of individuals. Any attempts to remove theses inequalities are an attack on individual liberty. Thus in his view questions of social justice should not come in the way of liberty and progress.

# 4 Conclusion

Both liberty and equality are necessary for a society based on justice. Liberty and equality complement each other in legal and political sphere. However, they conflict in the socio-economic sphere. Further even legal and political equality become ineffective in conditions of socio-economic equality! Liberty and equality can be reconciled by following the principle of difference of treatment and different rewards to individuals according to their service to the general society. However this position if stretched too far may lead to violation of liberty.

Note: The student can add his/her own opinion/conclusion.

Summary

·         Earlier idea of equality tended to preserve status quo while modern understanding demands social change for reducing inequalities.

·         Its demand is made as it is a desired goal of society.

·         Equal liberty for all is essential to prevent exploitation of the many by the few.

·         Ultimately liberty along with equality ensures justice for all.

·         Modern Scientific advancement enables reduction of social inequalities.

·         Instead of inequality of treatment the ideal of equality calls for provision of equal opportunities of development for individuals who are different in their capabilities and achieve social change.

·         However discrimination in favour of the needy and poor also leads to problems of fairness and natural justice.