Arms Control, Disarmament and Collective Security

Module 2

TYBA/PIV/Module 3.2 Approaches to Peace

I Arms Control

The term refers to any international control or limitations on weapons to reduce possibility of or limit destructiveness of war. It is a formal agreement to regulate weapons, chiefly nuclear weapons acquisition between two countries. Such treaties are mainly bilateral and are either of a limited term or for an indefinite period. Arms control is a result of disarmament efforts. As complete reduction of military capabilities is impossible in the present international system, countries, especially nuclear powers resort to arms control measures to reduce the possibility of war.

The massive destruction caused during WWII and later in Cold War period, and resultant threat of mutually assured destruction (MAD) led to arms control measures between US and SU. International efforts for nuclear arms control were seen in the establishment of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The autonomous agency formed to promote peaceful use of nuclear technology and prevent its military use.

However the Cold War triggered an arms race between the super powers that made international efforts for peace ineffective. It was after the Cuban missile crisis, that the threat of nuclear war led to agreements for arms control. Thus, a series of arms control measures followed namely, 1962 the US and SU agreed to arms control measures namely Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) 1963, Outer Space Treaty (1967); Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) 1965; Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty (SALT); Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (1987); Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) 1991; Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II (START-II) 1992; Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) 1996.

However, arms control agreements during Cold War focused on i) mutual deterrence, and ii) preventing others like China from acquiring nuclear weapons. In other words, US-SU did not stop the arms race but managed it and structured it as per their mutual interests.

Arms Control has been unsuccessful outside nuclear weapons. However, difficulties involved in developing weapons of mass destruction (WMD) led to number of states abandoning the need for acquiring nuclear arms. The unknown nature of threats in post Cold War era presents a difficulty of complex choices for a state’s military capability. Initiatives of arms control have been affected due to changes in world order along with evolving military technologies. Thus, Counter Proliferation measures focus on use of Ballistic Missile Defences and more proactive stance against proliferation.

Nuclear Proliferation issues in the new millennium have been addressed by measures like Proliferation Security Initiatives (PSI), 2003. It prohibits trafficking in WMD, Delivery Systems and related materials.

II Disarmament

The term refers to international agreement mainly for reduction and limitation and possibly elimination of arms through international organizations like UNO. The development of nuclear weapons and their rapid spread led to urgent need for disarmament after WWII. Disarmament issues became complicated in the era of super power rivalry. However the threat of complete annihilation of life led to need for disarmament of nuclear arms. It led to the debates on arms limitations and control both at UNO and between super powers. Distinguishing between arms control and disarmament provides a clearer understanding of the two:

Points of Distinction	Arms Control	Disarmament
Meaning	Agreements focus on setting limitations on testing, deployment, or use of certain types of weapons	Agreements prohibit possession of weapons
Purpose	Aim to encourage countries to manage their weapons in limited cooperation with each other	Aim at complete/partial elimination of weapons
Effectivity	US-SU led arms control measures in CW era led to successful limitations of arms/control of arms race	Failed negotiations as disagreement led to increased tensions between countries
Post Cold War era	Arms Control successfully replaced Disarmament	Disarmament abandoned as states face complex choices of national security and defence
Examples	Non-Proliferation Treaty, Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty I &II	Geneva Protocol Bans use of Chemical Weapons, Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF)

III Collective Security

The term refers to alliance of states against an aggressor state accused of threatening international peace. Immanuel Kant proposed a federation of world states for establishing lasting peace between great powers. The federation was aimed at safeguarding collective interest of all and to protect self-determination of small nations vulnerable to great-power games. The League of Nations was such a federation of states established for world peace at the end of WWI. However, failure to enlist great powers and unwillingness of members to bear financial costs of collective action led to League’s demise. The responsibility of establishing permanent peace after WWII was given to United Nations Organisation (UNO). The UN was based on collective security and collective action to promote world peace.

 Also, Regional Inter-Governmental Organisations like the Organisation for American States (OAS), Arab League and Organisation of African Union (OAU), also promote regional peace through collective security in addition to other causes.

The success of collective security depends on:  i) the level of members’ commitment to the group in case of a powerful aggressor state; and, ii) an agreed definition of what is an aggression.

IV UNO and Collective Security

The UNO and its Security Council remains central to the concept of collective security to establish international peace and order. Hence, a closer look is necessary to understand its functioning, shortcomings and issues of its reform. All of these have an important bearing on the concept of Collective Security.

United Nations, through the Security Council, plays a key role in maintaining international peace, especially since end of CW. Its performance of this role is shaped by global political context. In the CW era, UN peace role was rendered ineffective due to super power rivalry. The cold war politics hampered the effective functioning of Security Council, as the UN agency that authorizes collective responses to threats of international peace. Further, the original intent of establishing a Standing Army for the UN remains unimplemented since 1945 till date. However there have been advances to overcome such shortcomings in peace and security matters.

The United Nations Security Council is the UN agency responsible mainly for international peace and security. Its decisions are binding on all members. It has vast powers in this regard as it: i) defines the nature of threat or aggression; and ii) determines the structure of response to enforce decisions through directives to member countries of UN. Thus it is clear that UNSC plays an important role in maintaining peace through collective security. However its structure and cold war dynamics obstructed its peace role. Hence it is important to understand the structure and functioning of SC.

The SC structure is made of five permanent members, viz. US, Britain, France, Russia and China. Ten non-permanent members are appointed for two years by rotation amongst member countries. The meetings of SC in New York take place irregularly, upon request of an aggrieved member country of the UN.

Any collective security initiative requires a SC Resolution to be passed by a majority vote of nine out of total fifteen members of the agency. However any permanent member can override the resolution by using veto power that leads to rejection of the resolution by SC. The veto power was used during cold war by rival super powers in several instances rendering the SC ineffective to deal with aggression in world politics. Another way to reject a resolution used by permanent members is to abstain from voting for a resolution. Thus the absence from voting by a permanent member has the same effect as veto. Abstention is mostly used by countries to avoid involvement in issues that are perceived as unrelated to national interest. In the PCW era there have been persistent demands for SC reform by giving permanent membership to countries like Japan and Germany( for their economic contribution to collective security) or India(for its growing size and economy). But the present day world order presents difficulties for such reform in the SC.

The SC considers a step by step approach to respond to threats to international peace:

Firstly, it explores the peaceful settlement of disputes under Chapter VI of UN Charter. It the suggests settlement principles; attempts ceasefire; sends peacekeeping mission;

Secondly, it enforces decisions under Chapter VII of the Charter by imposing sanctions, arms embargo etc. In rare cases it authorizes collective military actions for e.g. during the Gulf War in 1990 against Iraq.

Another instrument of collective security is the peace-keeping operations in conflict zones under UN. Based on UN Charter VI, the UN mediates or negotiates settlement between warring groups and announces Ceasefire. The UN Peace Keeping Force is kept under the direct command of UN. It implements the ceasefire with the consent of the host state and ensures withdrawal of rival forces from the conflict zone. The UN forces use weapons only in self-defence. The peace keeping force excludes armed forces of major powers. Such a collective method was used in Egypt, 1956, monitoring Cyprus Green Line and in Golan Heights.

In the PCW era, the use of peace-enforcement or multi-dimensional peacekeeping by UN involves use of force for humanitarian causes. During the CW period internal conditions inside states were not questioned due to utmost importance to state sovereignty. However since end of cold war, attention has been given to internal conditions like civil war, poverty, hunger , occuring within states, that threaten international peace and security.

Further, September 11 attacks on New York and Iraq campaign 2003 have led to the recent addition of Non-state based threats on priority of UN Security agenda. The concern was highlighted in the UN Secretary General’s report titled ‘In Larger Freedom’ and led to establishment of UN Peace Building Commission in 2005.

Recently, the concept of collective security has broadened to include common/mutual security based on the idea that ‘security of all states is interdependent’.

Questions

1.      Write short notes on Arms Control/Disarmament/Collective Security.

2.      Define the concepts of Arms Control and Disarmament and discuss points of distinction between the two.

3.      Define Collective Security and discuss the role UNSC in maintaining international peace.