Dates: 1632 Birth
1649 Charles I executed
1660 Restoration (Charles II ruled 1660-1685)
1680 Exclusion Crisis and Robert Filmer’s Patriarcha
1683 Locke fled to Holland
1685-88 Rule of
James II
1688 William and Mary crowned
1689 Locke returned to England
1704 Death
I. Background
A. Personal
1. Family: Puritan traders; father was captain in Parliamentary army in
civil wars of 1640s
2. Service to Earl of Shaftesbury as physician and researcher
B. Locke’s Two Treatises as
theoretical justification for resistance to the sovereign
C. First Treatise directed against
Robert Filmer’s defense of the divine right of kings
D. Aim of Second Treatise
I Introduction- Locke as
the Father of Liberalism:
1. John Locke laid the foundation for development
of Western Democracies. His thoughts inspired the American and French
Revolutions and Constitutionalism in US. Locke founded the concepts of
Tolerance, Government by Consent and Realisation of Human Freedom were practically established
in US political system.
2. Locke
inspired early Feminists thinkers in 17th-18th Century through ideas like
belief in Supremacy of reason and hence is also credited for being the Guiding
and Spiritual Father of 18th Century Enlightenment period. Thinkers like
Rousseau and Voltaire were influenced from these ideas.
- Labour Theory of Value as
propounded by Locke inspired both Classical Economists and Karl Marx's
ideas on Socialism, thus proved valuable to economics.
- His strong advocacy of
Tolerance became the key value cherished in most democracies.
5. Critics
interpreted him as collectivist due to his insistence on rule by majority. He
was the Champion of individuality, a spokesperson of liberal democratic order
and was seen as the enemy of patriarchism, preparing grounds for women's equal rights in 18th
century England.
6. Important
Works: The Two Treatises, published in 1690 after the Glorious
Revolution 1688, deposition of Catholic King James II and accession of
Protestant King William and Queen Mary marked the beginning of a limited
constitutional monarchy and parliamentary supremacy, thus preparing way for
representative democracy in Britain.
II the
Context of Locke’s Ideas:
1.
The
Glorious Revolution in Locke’s time provided the historical background for his
Second Treatise and in which he justified the revolution. The 17th century was
a watershed in English political and constitutional history. The events during the time can be divided
into 4 distinct phases:
1) Accession
of James I to Civil War, 1641
2) 1642-1660
commonwealth under Cromwell
3) Monarchy
Restoration under Charles II,1660 to Exclusion crisis 1679-1681
4) Glorious
Revolution 1688
In all the four events the main question was
relevance of absolute monarchy and the need to limit monarch’s power against an
assertive parliament in England. This serves as the context of Locke’s
political theory and provides the basis for his arguments. These events were a
break in the continuity of government and his ideas on State mainly focus on
question of how to maintain continuity.
Hence he argues for a government based on
consent and state as upholder of people’s rights. Such an arrangement according
to him would be able to maintain continuity in government and restore peace and
order.
III
Locke's Political Theory the Limited State I: the Social Contract
John Locke adopted the Thomas Hobbes concept of State
of Nature and Social Contract, but only after making significant changes in
them. Nonetheless, these concepts remain central to understanding the modern
state and government.
1.
State of Nature: Unlike Hobbes,
Locke’s conception of state of nature was positive. It was a condition of
‘peace, goodwill and cooperation’. It was governed by equality of all and
natural rights derived from natural laws. The absence of : 1) a neutral law giver; 2) a neutral magistrate; and 3) a unbiased law enforcer led
to disagreement and conflict among humans. However, based on their instinctive belief in
mutual cooperation and co-existence they enter into a social contract. This in turn led to the establishment of a political society restore peace and order in
society, found lacking in state of nature.
2.
Social Contract: State of nature
lacked three things, namely, an impartial law maker, a neutral judge to interpret
law and an institution to implement law in an unbiased manner. These were
reasons why individuals chose to leave the state of nature to establish a
common authority. Thus, based on their instinct of self-preservation and
necessity to cooperate, humans agreed to enter in to an agreement or social
contract. This agreement was of each with the other individual and led to the
establishment of the political authority. Under the social contract individuals
submit their natural right ,to judge and punish others, to the political authority of the
sovereign state and its government.
3.
Another outstanding feature of Locke was that under his contract the
individuals did not submit all their rights to the state. They retain their natural rights to life,
liberty and property enjoyed earlier under the state of nature. In fact, Locke
further argues that the state was formed to guarantee the protection and
enjoyment of individual’s natural rights. Natural rights for Locke are
claims of individuals that the state is duty-bound to preserve and protect at
any cost.
4.
Thus he adopted Social Contract technique to
explain that legitimate political authority was derived from consent of
people. And hence could be withdrawn in case of violation of individual
freedom.
5.
His Two Treatises upheld and defended freedom,
consent and property as cardinal principles of legitimate political power
in a modern society.
6.
He also saw political power as a trust,
with the general community specifying its purposes and aims for which it was
originally formed.
IV
Locke’s Political Theory (the Limited State II): Freedom and Nature of
Political Authority
1.
He
explained the origin of political power through the concept of state of nature
in which perfect equality and freedom prevailed under laws of nature.
Individuals entered in to political society out of choice. Hence they retained
private sphere to themselves after state formation. Hence state's jurisdiction was limited to
public sphere, while private sphere was belonged to individuals and was free from state's interference. Separation
between State and society, distinction between public and private sphere of
life was central to Locke's theory and to western political thought in general.
2.
Self-preservation as
moral law of nature existed in state of nature. Hence Locke maintained that
political power can be understood only if it is derived from a state in which
all individuals enjoy perfect freedom over themselves and their possessions.
3.
Political authority like all authority was based
on religious obligations as it was formed to uphold natural law, which
in turn was made by God.
4.
Self-preservation duty and equality of all ruled
out conflict in state of nature. The individual’s duty of Self-preservation
meant that there was no scope for absolute political power. As individuals did not own themselves and their life was a gift from god. Thus any absolute
political authority was illegitimate.
5.
Unlike Hobbes gloomy picture of state of nature,
Locke's state of nature was based on freedom and natural rights. Natural
duties to limit individual freedom are aimed to establish order and rule out
subjection of people to the selfish and arbitrary will of any individual.
6. Trust was the basis of human of human relations..According
to Locke political authority was based on trusteeship. It meant that the
people gave political power to the state as a responsibility. And if the state
fails to fulfil the same, in the case of violation of these rights, people had
right to resist the government. Hence he rejected Hobbes idea that absolute
power was necessary to maintain order.
7. Through
contract, individuals consent to majority rule and surrender the three powers-law making; law enforcement; and interpreting law, judging and punishing others- to the sovereign authority. In the government, the Legislature was the supreme power,
though community retained supreme power to assess and evaluate its power.
Further if needed, the community may also revolt and change the
government by majority.
8. He
also emphasised that the legislative and executive power needed to be in
separate hands. Thus advocated limited sovereign state as reason and
experience made him reject political absolutism.
9. Since
state existed for people it had to be based on consent and limited by
constitution and rule of law. It held power as a trust and was limited by
natural laws and individual rights.
10. State
also exercised limited authority over individual as for Locke; it
exercised authority only in the political sphere. It could not interfere in
matters outside politics because supreme power resided in people who had the
inalienable right to dismiss the government. Also dismissal of a government did
not signify return to the state of nature as in Hobbes. Hence Locke was able to
justify resistance or revolt against unjust political power.
References
and Online Sources:
1)
Ramaswamy,
Sushila, ‘Political Theory Ideas and Concepts’ pp. 94-95, Macmillan India Ltd.,
2003, New Delhi.
2)
Asirvatham
Eddy, Mishra, K, ‘Political Theory’, pp. 100-114, S Chand, New Delhi, 2001.
3)
Gauba,
O, P, ‘An Introduction to Political Theory, pp.207-218, 322-323 Macmillan, New
Delhi, 2009.
4)
Heywood,
Andrew, ‘Political Theory An Introduction, pp. 75-88, Palgrave Macmillan, New
York, 2010.
6)
Stanford encyclopaedia of philosophy http://plato.stanford.edu/ ‘Locke's Political
Philosophy’, First published Wed Nov 9,
2005; substantive revision Thu Jul 29, 2010.
8) Locke’s Original Works can be accessed on the internet on the
following websites :
b. http://www.johnlocke.net/john-locke-works/two-treatises-of-government-book-i/ii ‘Two Treatises of Government
Book I & II.
a)
The
US Constitution : The Philosophy of John Locke
b)
The
US Constitution : George Mason’s Impact
Questions
1. Discuss John Locke’s Contribution to the concept of Modern
State/Liberal State/Limited State.
2. Explain Locke’s contribution to Modern State with the help of
Social Contract and Natural Rights.
3. Critically Analyse Locke’s concepts of State of Nature and
Social Contract.
notes are simple and lucid
ReplyDeleteThanks Deepti. Hope u can use them for studies. I will post more for each paper.All the Best.
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